Saturday 31 December 2011

Counterguerilla operation (CHAPTER 3)-part 1

Counterinsurgency Operations
Section I. General
3-1. Different conditions.
a. As described in chapters 1 and 2, the nature of counterguerrilla
operations differs from the conditions most soldiers expect to face
in combat. The counterguerrilla commander faces an enemy
whose objectives, tactics, and concepts are usually different from
his own.
b. This chapter examines the role of tactical counterguerrilla
operations in relation to the COIN program. In addition, it
discusses planning considerations and principles for the
successful conduct of counterguerrilla operations, as well as
related operations that the counterguerrilla force must be
acquainted with.
3-2. US role(example).
The most common role in which US forces will conduct counterguerrilla
operations will be as a foreign internal defense (FID) force.
The FID is designed to support the host country’s national objectives
and COIN plan. Two of the primary considerations for the FID
commander are the final goals of the host country COIN program and
how to coordinate his operations to support hose goals.
Section Il. Considerations
3-3. FID operations.
a. Most US forces conducting counterguerrilla operations will be
part of an FID force. The commander must understand how FID
operations support the host country COIN plan. In this sense, the
goals of the host country COIN plan become the goals for the FID
force and the counterguerrilla commander.
b. The primary consideration when planning counterguerrilla
operations is the effect operations will have on the populace.
Commanders must attempt to win the active support of the
population for the government. At a minimum, counterguerrilla
activities must eliminate incidents which the guerrilla may
exploit in his psychological operations.

3-4. Support of coin.
a. US forces committed to FID in the host country have a dual
mission. First, they must defeat or neutralize the guerrilla
militarily so the host country government can begin or resume
functioning in previously contested or guerrilla-controlled areas.
Second, they must support the overall COIN program by
conducting noncombat operations to provide an environment
where the host country government can win the trust and support
of its people and ultimately become self-sustaining. Both aspects
of the COIN mission are of equal importance and are usually
conducted simultaneously.
b. A common mistake made by FID forces when trying to gain
popular support is that they sometimes win popular support only
for themselves. The commander must ensure that popular
support, in the end, is for the host country government. Credit for
successful campaigns against the guerrillas, or programs to help
the people, should go to the host country government and not to
the FID force commander.
3-5. Purpose of tactical operations.
Tactical counterguerrilla operations are conducted to reduce the
guerrilla threat or activity in the area, and to provide a favorable
environment for the host country’s development program. These
purposes are complementary. When the guerrilla threat is reduced,
internal development can begin, and when internal development
works, the causes of dissatisfaction which gave rise to the insurgency
are alleviated. This deprives the guerrilla of both popular support and a
reason for fighting (which he needs to survive).

3-6. Planning considerations — METT-T.
a. Mission.
(1) Foreign internal defense operations fall into six areas:
(a) Intelligence operations.
(b) Psychological operations.
(c) Populace and resources control operations.
(d) Military-civic action.
(e) Tactical operations (both strike and consolidation).
(f) Advisory assistance.
(2) The combat brigade is most often concerned with tactical
operations, but because of the nature of counterguerrilla
warfare, a specific tactical operation or campaign willprobably involve elements of the five other operations to
some degree. The commander’s guidance for counterguerrilla
operations is more detailed and comprehensive than for
more conventional operations and must accommodate all
operational aspects inherent in brigade counterguerrilla
operations.
(3) Before receipt of a specific mission, the commander’s
guidance and subsequent planning is based on all probable
missions, to include supporting consolidation operations or
conducting strike operations, as well as on the specific
characteristics of the guerrilla, terrain, and population in the
specific operational area. After receipt of the mission, his
guidance becomes more specific and includes the extent to
which the brigade will become involved in each of the six
areas of FID operations

b.
Enemy. When evaluating the guerrilla capabilities and limitations,
the commander considers:
(1) National and regional origins.
(2) Organization, to include effectiveness and unity of command.
(3) Strength, morale, and status of training.
(4) Tactics being employed and tactical proficiency.
(5) Capability to attack, defend, and reinforce.
(6) Resources available:
(a) Food and water.
(b) Arms, ammunition, demolitions, fuels, medicines, and
neclear, biological, chemical (NBC) protective equipment
(agents, detection devices, and employment assets);
external support — personnel, materiel, and morale.
(7) Leaders and their personalities.
(8) Relations with the civilian population.
(9) Status of supplies.
(10) Effectiveness of communications.
(11) Effectiveness of intelligence and counterintelligence, to
include the extent of infiltration of host country civil and
military establishments.
(12) Lines of communications.
(13) Vulnerabilities.
(14) External support.

c.
Terrain and weather. When evaluating the effects of terrain
and weather on counterguerrilla operations, the commander
considers:
(1) Effects of seasons of the year (to include planting and
harvesting periods), phases of the moon, and coastal tides.
Particular attention is focused on the effects of the weather
on men, equipment, visibility, and mobility (on both US
forces and the guerrilla).
(2) Suitability of terrain (to include landing zones and pickup
zones) and road nets for tactical and logistical operations. As
with weather, particular attention is focused on the effects
the terrain has on men, equipment, visibility, and mobility
(on both US forces and the guerrilla).

d.
Troops and resources available.
( 1) The commander has a variety of combat, combat support,
and combat service support assets at his disposal. These
assets may be from US forces and civilian agencies, or from
host country forces and civilian agencies, or from a
combination of all these.
(2) Successful counterguerrilla operations depend upon the
commander utilizing his available assets to maximize their
strengths and minimize their weaknesses. To do this, the
commander realistically appraises the capabilities and
limitations of his assets and then organizes and employs
them on suitable missions. Oftentimes, the commander finds
he lacks assets which would greatly facilitate mission
accomplishment. In these instances, he should request what
he needs from his higher headquarters. If his needs cannot
be met, he has the option of improvising a solution or doing
without.
(3) The peculiar circumstances of counterguerrilla warfare
require that senior commanders allow subordinate leaders,
at all levels, a great deal of flexibility in accomplishing their
missions.

e.
Time.
(1) Time is relative. The conditions leading to the development
of the insurgency did not appear overnight, and they will not
disappear overnight, either.
(2) US forces involved in FID operations should anticipate
staying in the host country only as long as required to
complete their mission. Usually, this will only be as long as it
takes the host country forces to assume missions the
counterguerrilla force is accomplishing. No matter how
successful FID forces are militarily, the insurgency is not
defeated until the political, economic, and social problems
which led to it are corrected or significantly alleviated. This
usually takes a considerable length of time.
(3)In the area of tactical operations, time available for planning
and execution varies. When planning for long-term actions,
such as consolidation campaigns, a long lead time is
necessary to permit planning in meticulous detail. However,
when planning shorter term actions, such as strike campaigns
or offensive operations against fleeting guerrilla targets,
planning time is usually short
(4)Commanders at all levels can use the time available to them
more efficiently by planning for contingency missions. Lack
of hard information precludes planning in detail, but routine
tasks common to similar missions should be codified in
standing operating procedures (SOP) and understood by all
concerned. When the need to execute a contingency mission
arises, the basic plan can be reviewed and planning
expedited by making minor adjustment as required
(5)Planning time is often extremely limited. Warning and
operation orders are normally issued orally. In these
instances, the one-third rule applies: the commander utilizes
one third of the available time for his own planning and
allows two thirds of the available time for his subordinates to
develop their plans and issue their orders. In many cases,
planning time will be so limited that formal planning is
precluded. In these instances, commanders direct their
subordinates by using fragmentary orders.

3-7
Restrictions.

a.
US forces engaged in counterguerrilla operations function under
restrictions not encountered in other types of warfare. These
restrictions may appear to hamper efforts to find and destroy the
guerrilla. For example, the safety of noncombatants and the
preservation of their property is vitally important to winning
them over to the government’s side
b.
The guerrilla knows this and will attempt to capitalize on it by
engaging US forces at locations where US fire would endanger
civilians or damage their property. While the temptation to return
fire may be great, a few dead or injured enemy will in no way
compensate for the ill will of the local populace if some innocent
civilians are killed or injured or their homes and property
destroyed
c.
Political considerations influence the conduct of counterguerrilla
operations. It is essentially a contest between the host government
and guerrillas concerning political, social, religious, or economic
issues. The government and its representatives must present
themselves and their program as the better choice
d. Commanders must be prepared to operate in a broad range of
political atmospheres. The host country’s form of government
may be anything from an absolute, and not too benevolent,
dictatorship to a democracy struggling to establish itself, or
anything in between.
e. No matter what political atmosphere prevails in the host country,
the brigade commander must engage the guerrilla with every
asset at the commander’s disposal. He must realize that
democratic principles may not be immediately applicable.
However, he should act within the limits of his authority to
improve the circumstances of the government he was sent to
support. Any incidents of deep-rooted corruption, gross inefficiency,
or violation of human rights should be documented and reported
to higher headquarters. The commander can also offer other
alternatives to accomplish the same objective. -It is the responsibility
of the US Government to influence the host
government’s attitude toward democratic principles; it is
not the responsibility of the commander.
f . There will be situations where well-defined responsibilities in a
local area may not be readily apparent. It is the duty of the higher
headquarters to determine these responsibilities and make them
known prior to the insertion of US forces, especially in the
execution of strike missions. However, there maybe eventualities
in which the counterguerrilla force commander may be required to
coordinate with numerous governmental officials to locate
sources of authority and decision. If the commander encounters
government officials who habitually hinder operations against
the guerrillas through incompetence, self-interest, or suspected
sympathy for the guerrilla cause, he should document his case
and forward it to the next higher commander for disposition.
3-8. Operating principles.
a. Intelligence. Tactical intelligence is the key to defeating the
guerrilla. It provides the commander with information about
guerrilla locations, activities, strengths, weaknesses, and plans
which enable the commander to seize the initiative. Without
intelligence sources, the chances of success (particularly in
offensive operations) are limited and the commander must react
to guerrilla initiatives rather than controlling the situation in the
area of operations. Every relevant source of information about the
commander’s area of operation should be exploited and include:
1-The brigade intelligence section (and augmentation):
(a) Ground surveillance radar (augmentation from
division).
(b) Ground sensors (augmentation from division).
(c) Long-range surveillance unit (augmentation from
division).
(d) Aviation assets (augmentation from division).
(e) Aerial imagery reconnaissance (from corps).
2-The maneuver battalion’s intelligence section and reconnaissance
platoons.
3-The maneuver companies’ sightings and reports (combat
information).
4-Combat support units’ target acquisition batteries, military
police, chemical reconnaissance units (if available), and
sightings and reports (combat information).
5-Combat service support units’ sightings and reports (combat
information).
6-Other sources:
-Local populace.
-Intelligence agents (from division and corps).
-Host government civilian agencies.
-Captured enemy documents (from division and corps).
-Enemy prisoners (from division and corps).
-Intercepted enemy communications (from division and
corps).
-Special operation forces.
b. Tactical situation. The organization for, and conduct of,
counterguerrilla operations is dependent on the tactical situation.
Units are organized and employed to counter the current guerrilla
threat. For example, if guerrillas are operating in platoon-size
units, then platoon- or company-size units are used against them.
These units conduct independent operations such as patrols and
ambushes, under centralized control (company or battalion). This
enables them to cover more area simultaneously than a larger
unit and still have the firepower to deal with the typical guerrilla
unit they might encounter. Employing a large force to counter a
significantly smaller guerrilla force is inefficient because it
compromises the chance of achieving surprise, reduces the area
that can be covered at any one time, and is more difficult to move
(than a smaller force) if it is required elsewhere. However, sending
a small force to counter a significantly larger guerrilla force may
prove disastrous unless the smaller force is supported by fire or
can be rapidly reinforced.
c. Flexibility. Forces engaged in counterguerrilla operations are
flexible and capable of adapting to rapidly changing tactical
situations. The nature of counterguerrilla warfare necessitates
being able to make swift transitions from large to small unit
operations; to adjust to extremes of terrain, weather, and
visibility; to move on foot, by vehicle, or by aircraft; and to
function in offensive or defensive modes. Adapting to changing
tactical situations keeps the guerrilla force off balance and
prevents it from developing effective tactical operations.

d. Mobility
(1) Counterguerrilla forces most possess mobility equal to or
greater than that of the guerrilla in order to find, fix, fight,
and pursue him. Since the guerrilla is primarilly footmobile,
counterguerrilla forces equipped with motorized, mechanized,
or air transportation assets would appear to have a
significant mobility advantage. However, the guerrilla
typically operates from terrain that precludes (or severely
limits) speed on a ground approach. The counterguerrilla
force’s mobility advantage may not be as great as it first
appears to be. When terrain, weather, or the guerrilla force
disposition precludes closing on guerrilla positions by
high-speed air or ground transport, then counterguerrilla
forces should be moved by the fastest available transportation
to the nearest suitable, safe area to launch footmobile
operations. A well-trained, footmobile counterguerrilla force,
that can use terrain better than the enemy, can achieve a
tactical mobility advantage
(2) Commanders should not overburden soldiers with excessive
loads because the guerrillas will be able to outrun them.
Soldiers should carry only the things they need to find and
fix the guerrilla. Once this is accomplished, they can be
resupplied by ground or air.

e. Minimum use of force.
(1) Only the minimal firepower needed to accomplish a given
mission is employed. If US forces come under guerrilla fire,
and if by returning fire noncombatant civilians maybe
injured or their homes and property destroyed, then only the
amount of fire necessary to protect US forces is returned.
Under these circumstances, the commander attempts to
suppress the guerrillas with minimal return fire (possibly
using snipers) and moves his forces to advantageous
positions from which he may engage the guerrillas while not
endangering civilian life or property. He may use smoke and,
if authorized, riot control agents to facilitate maneuver. If
the guerrillas cannot be engaged without endangering
civilian life or property, the commander moves his forces
(over covered or concealed routes) to positions that cut off
their escape routes and encircle them. Then he begins to
tighten the ring around them.

(2) The unrestricted use of firepower in the vicinity of civilians
or their property will result in turning their anger toward the
government and may turn them to the insurgent cause. US
soldiers must understand this and follow strict rules of
engagement. However, the right to self defense is never
denied.

(3) All available fire may be brought to bear on guerrillas when
it does not endanger civilian life or property. However, the
expenditure of ammunition should be appropriate: mortars
to knock out a machine gun position; small arms to kill a
sniper. The use of indirect fire, while effective in some cases,
is not a substitute for maneuver.
f. Patience. Counterguerrilla forces must anticipate long periods
without making contact. The guerrilla knows he is outnumbered
and outgunned and avoids engagement unless it is on his terms.
Counterguerrilla forces should not develop a false sense of
security if it appears the guerrilla has ceased operations in their
area. It must be assumed that the guerrilla is always observing
the operating patterns of the counterguerrilla force for weak
points, and waiting for lax security to strike with minimum risk. A
guerrilla attack must be expected at any time.

g. Reserves.
(1) The commander always maintains a reserve to take
advantage of sudden opportunities, and to counter guerrilla
initiatives. The size of the reserve depends on the size of its
parent unit and the tactical situation.
(2) In offensive operations, a company might keep a squad in
reserve; battalions, a platoon; and brigade, a company.
(3) In defensive operations, because of the need for 360-degree
security, a reserve at company and battalion is complicated
by the fact that the on-line strength of the perimeter is
reduced.
(4) The company or battalion commander may have to spread
his forces thin to protect his perimeter. In these instances,
the commander has four options: establish a small, centrally
located reserve at the expense of on-line strength; establish
no reserve but specify units on-line to be prepared to shift a
portion of their strength to other sections of the perimeter;
establish no reserve but reinforce the most heavily contested
section of the perimeter by fire; and consider reducing the
size of the perimeter.
(5)Brigades too should maintain a company in reserve in
defensive operations. This mission should be rotated among
companies, with the company that has spent the most time
in the field (or that has seen the heaviest action) being
designated as the reserve. The reserve company can rest,
rearm, and train during the time it has the reserve mission
(6)The reserve unit should be highly mobile. Air transport is the
preferred method for moving the reserve because it is fast
and not dependent on open ground routes as are motorized or
mechanized modes of transport. Whatever its mode of
transportation, the reserve’s vehicles are dedicated to the
reserve and immediately available for employment
(7)Reserve units are prepared for contingency missions. If the
reserve is committed, the commander designates a new
reserve. In this case, his least committed unit is the first
choice.

Section III. Strike Campaigns
3-9. Targets.
This section provides guidance on the organization, missions,
concepts, and operations of strike campaigns. Strike campaigns
consist of a series of major combat operations targeted against
insurgent tactical forces and bases in contested or insurgent-controlled
zones. Other internal defense activities may support tactical forces
during strike operations. Strike campaign operations are usually of
relatively short duration (generally, one day to several weeks). While
the guidance outlined here is focused on the infantry brigade, this
section may be extended to apply to any combined arms organization
conducting counterguerrilla operations.
3-10. Organization.
Brigades assigned strike campaign missions either are relieved from
area responsibility in advance of the mission or, preferably, are
constituted as specialized forces held at the national or regional levels.
Brigade strike forces are organized as self-sufficient task forces
capable of operating in areas remote from logistical bases. Brigades
are assigned support bases in secure areas for elements not committed
to operations.

3-11. Missions.
Strike campaigns are conducted against guerrilla forces and bases.
They serve to keep guerrilla forces moving and off balance. Strike
campaign areas are usually outside of those undergoing consolidation
or those under friendly control. Ground or water means of entry maybe
used, but air assault or parachute deliveries can be employed.

3-12. Concepts.
a. Strike campaigns include offensive tactics such as raids,
reconnaissance in force, hasty or deliberate attacks, and pursuit
(or combinations of these operations).
b. Brigade strike campaign operations are conducted to:
(1) Harass the guerrilla to prevent the buildup of personnel and
logistical resources.
(2) Destroy the guerrilla force and its base complexes.
(3) Demonstrate support for the government and for the
populace in the local area.
(4) Expand consolidation areas.

3-13. Operations.
a. Brigades committed to strike campaigns are assigned a tactical
area of responsibility. The brigade commander normally assigns
operational areas to the subordinate battalions which, in turn,
may assign areas to companies. Company commanders may
assign specific areas to platoons at times; however,’ platoons are
normally assigned specific missions rather than operational
areas. Each battalion normally establishes a separate operational
support base (OSB). Companies normally operate from patrol
bases, but at times may operate separate company OSBs. When
the areas assigned to units are too large to be reconnoitered
concurrently by subordinate units, commanders establish an
order of priority for reconnaissance of the areas.
b. Battalion commanders maintain reserve forces (ready forces) to
react quickly to situations requiring an immediate response. Each
rifle company patrols its area of operations continuously and
aggressively. The location of the company patrol base and patrol
routes are varied to ensure complete coverage of the area.
c. The rifle company moves to, secures, and occupies the company
patrol base with sufficient supplies to permit limited independent
operations. If it is to operate in the same area for a period of time, it
should consider establishing small ration and ammunition
reserves.
d. The company area is patrolled to provide complete coverage day
and night with emphasis on night patrols. Generally, platoon-size
patrols have sufficient firepower to handle the situation if a
guerrilla force is encountered. If additional support is needed, the
company commander may maneuver his other platoons against
the guerrillas, or he may request assistance from the battalion
reserve (ready force). Emphasis is placed on engaging the
guerrilla with organic means of fire and movement (if required)
and on employing supporting artillery and air support.
e. Orders issued to the company commanders include the area
assigned and resupply instructions. The conduct of operations is
based on decentralized planning and execution. Company
commanders plan and coordinate platoon activities to ensure
completion of the overall company mission. Platoons on patrol
carry light rations and store unneeded equipment at OSBs.
f. Rifle company mortars may (at times) be located in battalion
OSBs while fire support teams (FIST) move with the companies. If
the terrain and situation permit, battalion OSBs may be moved as
the companies move their patrol bases. If civilian communities
are in the area, and if security conditions permit, battalion bases
may be near (but not within) the community. Here, the battalion
may conduct psychological, intelligence, and military-civic
action operation.
g. Brigade commanders use all available means to locate guerrilla
forces and bases, and they give priority to destroying the guerrilla
forces. An attack on a guerrilla force normally requires superior
combat power. Reserves (ready forces) attempt to immediately
engage and destroy moving guerrilla forces before they can
disperse. Depending on the situation, either hasty or deliberate
attacks are made on guerrilla bases that contain fortifications.
After a successful attack on guerrilla forces, troops thoroughly
search the area for guerrilla personnel, supplies, equipment, and
documents. Pursuit operations are undertaken to destroy or
capture forces attempting to flee. Artillery, air support, and air
assault forces support ground pursuit.
h. The brigade does not normally occupy the area defensively for an
extended time following a successful attack. Operations to search
out guerrillas continue. Elements of the brigade may be rotated
through the brigade support base for periods of rest and training.
i. Speed and surprise are important in strike operations, especially
when attacking a known guerrilla stronghold. The sudden and
unexpected delivery of combat forces into a guerrilla-held or
contested area provides significant advantages to the counterguerrilla
commander. If caught by surprise, the guerrilla maybe
unable to react in time to save himself. He is confused initially and
may panic. In the time it takes him to become aware of the tactical
situation, or to take effective action, the counterguerrilla forces
may encircle him. Speed and surprise may be achieved by using
air assault tactics to insert the first counterguerrilla forces into
the area of operations. Subsequent forces can be delivered on later
airlifts or by other modes of transportation.
j. Strike forces are most vulnerable just after entering a new area of
operations. Initially, there is some confusion until patrol bases
are established and patrols are sent out. counterguerrilla forces
must be especially security conscious the first few hours in a new
location. Upon arrival, they should immediately establish target
reference points, observation posts, and listening posts.

Section IV. Consolidation Campaigns
3-14. Control.
a. This section provides the brigade guidance on the missions,
organization, and operations of consolidation compaigns.
Consolidation campaigns are the application of all civil and
military aspects of internal defense and internal development
programs. They are designed to establish, regain, or maintain
control of specific areas.
b. The brigade participates in consolidation campaigns by conducting
tactical, intelligence, psychological, civil affairs, populace and
resources control, and advisory assistance operations.
c. Brigades committed to consolidation campaigns support the
overall host country internal defense and development (IDAD)
effort by applying their resources in the following manner:
(1) In the preparation and offensive phases, tactical operations
are stressed. Initial area control is established by clearing
guerrilla forces from an area, expanding it, and linking it to
other areas as they are cleared.
(2) In the development phase, the primary mission is tactical
operations to maintain security of the cleared area. Concurrently,
the brigade performs intelligence, psychological,
populace and resources control, civil affairs, and advisory
assistance operations. The brigade also conducts military-civic
action in conjunction with civil affairs programs.
(3) During the completion phase, when guerrilla activity within
a consolidated area has been largely neutralized and host
country agencies have resumed control of the area, the
brigade begins to phase out its participation in local
operations and prepares to conduct operations in another
area.

3-15. Preparatory phase.
Consolidation campaign plans are detailed and provide for long-range
commitment of both personnel and materiel. Plans are coordinated
with all agencies involved in the consolidation campaign. In addition
to planning, the brigade conducts necessary training and becomes
 
engaged in intelligence and other FID activities